Sharks are one of the most feared animals in the world, which is primarily due to famous Hollywood movies, where sharks attack humans. In actuality, of the hundreds of identified shark species all over the world, there are only a few dozens that are particularly considered dangerous. The shark species most commonly involved in shark bites are the great white shark, tiger shark and bull shark.

Types of Shark Bite Attacks

There are three types of shark bite attacks: hit-and-run, bump-and-bite and sneak attack. Although the latter two are less common than the first, they are considered to be more serious and more lethal.

• Hit-and-Run Shark Bite Attack
  • Most common
  • Shark takes a single bite and leaves the victim after
• Bump-and-Bite Shark Bite Attack
  • Shark head butts the casualty a few times before going back to take a few bites
• Sneak Attack Shark Bite Attack
  • Shark bites without warning to the casualty and follows-up with further attacks

Signs and Symptoms of Shark Bites

In most cases of shark bites, the casualties are not aware that a shark is nearby. The only warning can be in the form of the shark’s fin approaching or sometimes, the bump (heat butt) before the attack. The following signs and symptoms are common of shark bites:

• Crescent–shaped shark bites
• In less serious cases, only an abrasion may appear due to the friction of the skin against the tooth of the shark (slightly superficial cuts)
• Parallel cuts
• In more serious cases, amputation of a whole body part
• Bleeding

Fortunately, most puncture wounds caused by shark bites do not harm the blood vessels or cause injuries to the nerves.

First Aid Management of Shark Bites

Although some shark bites may not seem serious, it is still necessary t seek medical treatment immediately. Moreover, it is important to apply first aid as soon as the casualty is out of the water. Keep the casualty calm and reassure him/her at all times.

• Control the bleeding by applying deep pressure on the wounds. Use any clean, absorbent cloth. If the cloth is already soaked in blood, place a new absorbent cloth on top of the old one.
• Once the bleeding is controlled, wash the wound with soap and warm water.
• Apply an antiseptic and a sterile dressing to help avoid infection.
• If there is heavy bleeding, cover the victim with a towel or blanket to avoid loss of body heat. This is done to avoid hypothermia and shock.
• Check the casualty for circulation, airway and breathing. Initiate CPR if necessary.
• If there is an amputated limb, wrap the amputated part in sterile bandages and place inside a plastic before placing it in another plastic with ice.

Learn how to manage shark bites and bites of other animals by enrolling in First Aid Courses and CPR Training.

Shark bites occur when any specie of shark attacks a human and leads to a bite. Oftentimes, shark bites are caused by mistaken identity, but most require medical treatment

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Leg pain is any kind of pain that occurs anywhere between the pelvis and the heels. It is a common complaint that is frequently caused by an injury, cramp or other causes, which will be discussed further later. Some of these causes do not necessarily initiate in the leg but can be damage from other injuries. The pain can occur in one part of the leg, such as the calf and knee, or the whole leg and can be acute, chronic, temporary, recurrent or gradual. Mild leg pain can often be managed with sufficient home treatment.

Causes of Leg Pain

Leg pain may be symptomatic of a serious medical problem however, it is more often associated with cramps and injury. The following are the specific causes of leg pain:

• Injury
  • Fracture of the femur (thigh bone) or tibia/ fibula (lower leg bones)
  • Knee dislocation
  • Stress fracture
  • Muscle strain
  • Tendinitis
  • Shin splints
• Muscle cramps
  • Dehydration
  • Certain medications such as diuretics or statins
  • Muscle fatigue
• Medical problems
  • Blood clot
  • Atherosclerosis
  • Varicose veins
  • Arthritis
  • Gout
  • Cellulitis
  • Osteomyelitis
  • Nerve damage

When to Seek Medical Assistance Regarding Leg Pain

Leg pain can characterized as mild, moderate or severe. It may be confusing to a person when it might be best to seek medical help. The following tips are generally advised in cases of leg pain:

• When to seek emergency medical assistance
  • Deep cut exposing the tendons or bones
  • Incapable of bearing weight on the affected leg and trouble walking
  • Hearing a pop sound at the time of the injury
  • Pain, swelling, redness or warmth in the calf (back portion of lower leg)
• When to visit the doctor immediately
  • Swollen, pale or unusually cool leg
  • Signs of infection: red streaks from the wound, warmth and tenderness in the area, and fever
  • Serious leg symptoms that appear with no apparent cause
  • Calf pain that appears after sitting for a long period of time
• When to schedule a visit to the doctor
  • Swelling in both legs
  • Aggravating pain
  • Leg pain that occurs during or after walking
  • Pain that lasts for several weeks without improvement despite home treatment

First Aid Management for Leg Pain

Treatment will vary on the underlying cause but mild leg pain usually responds well to treatment. First aid can also be applied to cases of broken leg bones and dislocation of joints along the legs. To manage leg pain:

• For cases of sprains and broken bones, follow the RICE method.
  • Rest the affected leg and avoid doing any more activities. Immobilize the affected leg for broken bones.
  • Ice the affected area for 15-20 minutes thrice daily. Wrap the ice in a towel or any cloth.
  • Compress the affected leg using a compression bandage to limit swelling.
  • Elevate the affected area as much as possible also to limit swelling.
• To ease pain and swelling that are not related to injuries:
  • Avoid putting weight on the leg.
  • Apply an ice pack three times a day for 15-20 minutes each.
  • Elevate the leg whenever one is lying down or sitting.
  • Take over-the-counter pain medications such as ibuprofen or naproxen.

Disclaimer: This article does not provide medical advice or treatment. This information given should not be used for self-diagnosis of the possible conditions. Seek medical attention when needed. To learn more about how to manage leg pain and other body pains, enrol in First Aid Courses with St Mark James training.

Source:

Leg Pain (2011). National Institutes of Health: MedlinePlus. Retrieved September 8, 2013, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003182.htm

Leg Pain (2013). Mayo Clinic. Retrieved September 8, 2013, from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/leg-pain/MY00080/DSECTION=when-to-see-a-doctor

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Talus is a very important and a small bone that is responsible for transferring weight of the body on the foot by articulating with the tibia and fibula. It functions as a connector between the foot and legs at the ankle joint. On above, it forms joint with fibula and tibia and it also communicates with other small cones of foot like calcaneus and navicular. As it bears the weight from the legs, excess load or repetitive strain on the talus can cause the fractures, which may be minute and tiny or wide and severe in some cases. The prolonged damage to talus usually results in slight hair like fractures and wide avulsion fractures are not common.

Symptoms of Talus bone fractures:

The major manifestations that suggest a fracture of talus bone are:

• Ankle pain which may be severe or mild
• Worsening of pain on movement
• Inability to stand normally
• Night aching after some days of fracture
• Pain on touching ankle region
• Redness on skin over ankle
• Swelling and inflammation

Causes of Talus fractures:

Main cause is maximum cases is the over stressing of the talus bone. The suggested causes for causing talus fracture may be:

• Excessive loading of talus
• Prolonged weight bearing activity
• Increased physical activity like running
• Changing the exercise patterns in case of athletes
• Sports strains like during playing football

How to diagnose a talus fracture?

Like any other foot bone fracture, usage of an imaging technique like x-rays, MRI, CT scan, a complete medical history and a physical examination of the foot are the methods to devise and confirm a diagnosis. Usually the medical history and physical examination are sufficient enough to make a diagnosis. X-rays may not reveal the tiny fractures of talus, so more advanced techniques like magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography scan are used.

Treatment options for talus bone fractures:

The talus fracture can be treated either conventionally if fracture is minor or surgically if fractures are multiple and more complex.

Using the appropriate managing techniques, the healing process can be completed rapidly. The healing is good in most of the cases, as fractures are tiny and less time is required to heal them. Giving the foot complete rest, applying a cast is good enough. Plaster casting is not needed unless the normal cast and immobility don’t work fine.

The drugs taken in fractures are NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) like ibuprofen and pain killers like aspirin. The heavy doses of pain killers are not suggested and over the counter drugs do the work just fine.

If everything fails and pain continues after weeks of treatments, then surgery is performed to join the bone manually. This is known as the internal fixation of talus and a small cut is required for this procedure. The broken bone ends are brought together and joined with each other by using the wires, screws and small plates to provide extra support.

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Apart from the depth of the vein in relation to the skin surface, what differentiates superficial thrombophlebitis from deep vein thrombosis is the presence of phlebitis or inflammation of the vein.Superficial thrombophlebitis is not generally considered a medical emergency. Although it is not life-threatening medical emergencies on its own, it may causecomplications that may lead to serious medical problem such as pulmonary embolism, which may eventually result to death.

Risk Factors for Superficial Thrombophlebitis

Superficial thrombophlebitis can occur spontaneously in an individual. However, it is known that the following factors may increase an individual’s risks of developing superficial thrombophlebitis:

• Virchow’s triad:
  • Blood vessel wall damage
  • Blood flow stasis
  • Blood hypercoagubility
• Sitting or staying still for extended periods of time, such as traveling in a car for hours or on a long flight
• Varicose veins
• Recent IV, catheter or injection in a vein
• Chemical irritation of the region
• Use of oral contraceptives  and hormone replacement medications
• Pregnancy
• Obesity
• Infection
• Having blood disorders that affect blood clotting
• Thrombophilia
• Smoking
• Deep vein thrombosis
• Cancers of the abdomen
• Factor V Leiden
• Prothrombin gene mutation
• Old age, particularly over age 60

Signs and Symptoms of Superficial Thrombophlebitis

The following are the signs and symptoms of superficial thrombophlebitis. If any of the following symptoms exacerbate, of if new symptoms progress it may denote a more serious condition that would require immediate medical attention.

• Inflammation of the skin along the affected vein
• Warmth and redness of the tissue and skin surrounding the vein, which may eventually darken
• Pain and tenderness that exacerbates upon increasing pressure
• Painful limb
• Hardening of the affected vein (induration)

First Aid Management for Superficial Thrombophlebitis

In majority of the cases, superficial thrombophlebitis is managed at home with effective first aid treatment. It usually takes two weeks to heal.  The following steps are recommended in cases of superficial thrombophlebitis:

• Apply a warm compress to the affected area.
• To ease swelling, elevate the affected limb. One may also wear support stockings to limit swelling.
• Take over-the-counter non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs) medications, such as ibuprofen and aspirin, to help decrease redness and irritation.

Disclaimer: This article does not provide medical

advice or treatment. The information given should not be used for self-diagnosis. Seek medical attention when necessary. Understanding symptoms that are commonly present in medical situations may help when taking first aid training. To learn more about to how to ease symptoms of superficial thrombophlebitis, enrol in First Aid Courses with St Mark James Training.

Sources:

Roddick, Julie. (2012). Superficial Thrombophlebitis.Healthline. Retrieved on October 5, 2013, from http://www.healthline.com/health/superficial-thrombophlebitis?toptoctest=expand

Superficial thrombophlebitis.(2012). National Institutes of Health. Retrieved on October 5, 2013, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000199.htm

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Stable angina is the most common type of angina. It is characterized by chest pain or discomfort that manifests with stress or activity. Stable angina has a regular pattern with regard to regularity, intensity and risk factors, where pain lasts for a few minutes or until medication is taken. In contrast, unstable angina is when there is not regular pattern and may become more frequent and intense than stable angina.The medical term for stable angina is angina pectoris.

The heart needs a constant supple of oxygen as it is working all the time, thus when it does not get its sufficient amounts of blood, angina occurs. Angina is chest pain or discomfort that results from insufficient amount of oxygen-rich blood received by the heart.Angina is not a diagnosis on its own, but rather, it is commonly a symptom of an underlying heart condition, such as coronary heart disease, the most common type of heart disease in adults. Moreover,stable angina is suggestive of myocardial infarction (heart attack) in the future.

Causes of Stable Angina

Millions of people suffer from stable angina each year. Stable angina is commonly associated with coronary heart disease, but there are other conditions that may also cause chest discomfort. However, it is important to note that not all chest pain or discomfort is angina. The following medical conditions may also lead to stable angina:

• Atherosclerosis
• Blood clot, pulmonary embolism
• Lung infection
• Aortic dissection
• Aortic stenosis

Risk Factors for Stable Angina

                Having certain diseases can predispose an individual to stable angina, however, the environment and particular lifestyle factors may also increase an individual’s chance of developing angina. The following include:

• Medical or health conditions:
  • Hypertension
  • Diabetes
  • High LDL cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol
  • Anaemia
  • Abnormal heart rhythms
  • Coronary heart spasm
  • Heart failure
  • Heart valve disease
  • Hyperthyroidism
• Environmental or lifestyle factors coupled with a heart disease:
  • Smoking
  • Cold weather
  • Eating large meals
  • Exercise
  • Emotional stress

Symptoms of Stable Angina

Symptoms of stable angina can be anticipated as they seem to have a regular pattern, such as after doing an activity or exercising. The symptoms of stable angina will typically improve after resting or slowing down, which commonly include:

• Chest pain or discomfort that occurs behind the sternum (breastbone) or marginally to its left that increases in intensity within the next minutes before gradually disappearing (usually lasts from 1 – 15 minutes)
  • Pain may be sharp or dull, or like a tightness, heavy pressure present in the chest
  • May radiate to the, jaw, neck, shoulder, arm (typically to the left) or back
• Dyspnea
• Weakness and fatigue
• A feeling of indigestion
• Nausea and vomiting
• Dizziness or light-headedness
• Sweating
• Heart palpitations

First Aid Management for Stable Angina

Treatment will usually involve medications, lifestyle changes and surgical

procedures. However, if one experiences angina for the first time, call for emergency medical services, as angina may be a symptom of a heart attack. The following is generally recommended:

• Assist the person into a comfortable position. Keep the person calm and reassure him/ her that help is on the way. Do not leave the person alone.
• If the person has medication for angina with them, assist them in taking the medication.
• Check and monitor the person’s vital signs. If necessary, commence CPR.

Assisting a person experiencing stable angina is necessary. Understanding stable angina can be a very helpful when taking First Aid Training and CPR Courses, as it is a common symptom for many medical emergencies.

Source:

Stable angina.(2012). National Institutes of Health. Retrieved on October 6, 2013, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000198.htm

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Unstable angina is a condition wherein the heart does not get enough blood supply and consequentially, enough oxygen-rich blood. It does not follow a regular pattern, thus it may strike at any time of the day, and does not necessarily occur after a physical action. Unstable angina may occur more frequently and with greater intensity than stable angina that is not always relieved by medication or rest.It occurs more commonly in men than women.

Angina is chest pain or discomfort that results from insufficient amount of oxygen-rich blood received by the heart. Angina is not a diagnosis on its own, but rather, it is commonly a symptom of an underlying heart condition, such as coronary heart disease, the most common type of heart disease in adults.Unstable angina may be fatal and would require emergency medical assistant as soon as possible. It is suggestive of a myocardial infarction in the near future. Unstable angina is sometimes called acute coronary syndrome.

Causes of Unstable Angina

The heart needs a constant supple of oxygen as it is working all the time, thus when it does not get its sufficient amounts of blood, angina occurs. Usually, partial or total blockage of the heart’s blood vessels occurs due to the formation of blood clots or the rupture of plaques (fatty deposits) in the coronary arteries.The following are the other causes of unstable angina:

• Coronary artery disease
• Atherosclerosis
• Blood disorders that excessive blood clotting

Risk Factors for Unstable Angina

Certain medical or health conditions and certain lifestyle factors may increase a person’s chance of developing unstable angina. These risk factors include:

• Hypertension
• Diabetes
• High LDL cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol
• Family history of early coronary heart disease
• Lack of exercise
• Obesity
• Smoking
• Old age

Symptoms of Unstable Angina

Unlike stable angina, the symptoms of unstable angina may occur suddenly and may increase in intensity over time. The following are symptoms of unstable angina:

• Chest pain that may spread to the jaw, neck, shoulder, arm, back and other areas of the body that may las for 15-20 minutes
• Discomfort that feels like a tightening, squeezing, crushing, burning, aching or choking and may occur during rest or while sleeping.
• May or may not be relieved by medications
• Dyspnea
• Sweating
• Weakness and fatigue
• Drop in blood pressure

First Aid Management for Unstable Angina

Treatment will usually involve medications, lifestyle changes and surgical

procedures. However, if one experiences unstable angina at any time, call for emergency medical services immediately, as unstable angina may be a symptom of a heart attack or a forthcoming angina. The following is generally recommended for cases of unstable angina:

• Assist the person into a comfortable position. Keep the person calm and reassure him/ her that help is on the way. Do not leave the person alone.
• If the person has medication for angina with them, assist them in taking the medication.
• Check and monitor the person’s vital signs. If necessary, commence CPR.

Assisting a person experiencing stable angina is necessary. Understanding unstable angina and its symptoms can be a very helpful when taking First Aid Training and CPR Courses, as it is a common symptom for many medical emergencies.

Source:

Unstable angina.(2012). National Institutes of Health. Retrieved on October 6, 2013, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000201.htm

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Head injuries are a broad classification of injuries that pertains primarily within close proximity to the scalp, skull or brain. It is the most common cause of death from trauma based on worldwide statistics.

Traumatic brain injuries are the most serious form of head injury. The most common causes of  a traumatic brain injury are motor vehicle crashes, violence and falls. Groups that are prone of experiencing traumatic brain injuries are males ageing 15 to 24 years because of their psychosocial predisposition. Furthermore,  the very young (younger than 5 years old) and the very old (older than 75)  are also at increased risk of acquiring injuries to the head because of their frail physical structure.

Preventing head injuries and spinal cord injuries   

Most if not all head injuries can actually be prevented. It takes proper precautionary measures and strict observance of the basic principles and guidelines of safety wherever and whatever situation the case may be; in the home, at work, in the streets or inside any motorized vehicle. Proper observance of safety is the best protection against head injuries. Below are some general guidelines that health professionals can impart to their patients in preventing head injuries:

1. Advise motorists to strictly obey traffic laws and to avoid speeding or driving under the influence of drugs and alcohol.
2. Advise all drivers and passengers to wear seatbelts and shoulder harnesses. Children younger than 12 years old should be restrained in an age/sized-appropriate system in the back seat.
3. Caution passengers against riding in the back of pick-up trucks.
4. Advised motorcyclists, scooter riders, bicyclist, skateboarders and roller skaters to wear helmets and appropriate protective devices.
5. Promote educational programs that are directed toward violence and suicide prevention in the community.
6. Provide water safety instruction especially in outdoor swimming places.
7. Advise elderly patients in instituting safety standards in the home to prevent falls and similar accidents.
8. Advise athletes and their coaches to use protective and proper gear when playing their sport.

Pathophysiology of brain injuries

Research suggests that not all brain damage occurs at the precise moment of impact. Damage to the underlying structures of the brain from a traumatic brain injury takes two forms namely; primary injury and secondary injury. Primary injury to the brain may include contusions, lacerations and torn blood vessels due to impact, acceleration/deceleration or foreign object penetration. Secondary injury evolves over ensuing hours and days after the initial injury and is due primarily unchecked cerebral edema, ischemia and chemical changes associated with direct trauma to the brain.

The difference between sustained body injuries from head injuries in general

An injured brain is predominantly very different from an injury of

other parts of the body primarily because of its unique and intricate characteristics. The brain resides within the skull which is comprised of infused bones that forms a solid compartment which unlike other structures such as the ankle which upon injury expands as a result of the normal inflammatory response, the skull on the other hand is not expandable which upon the onset of an inflammation  response has the potential to aggravate the damage already inflicted upon the prior injury. Any bleeding and or swelling of the brain and underlying tissues  increases volume of contents within the fixed size of the skull. The resulting restriction of expansion can result in restricted blood flow to the brain tissue which after the instance of a traumatic brain injury can result in ischemia, infarction, irreversible brain damage and death.

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Tonsillitis is the inflammation of the tonsils, where the tonsils become red and enlarged with a yellow or white coating. The tonsils are lymph nodes located in the back of the mouth and top of the throat. They function in a way assist the immune system by protecting the body from infections that may enter the body through the oral cavity. The tonsils filter the bacteria and other microorganisms from entering the body and avoiding infection. The tonsils also produce antibodies that help fight off infections. Infection may also be seen in other parts of the throat.

Tonsil infections are commonly caused by bacteria and viruses, thus it is contagious. It can be transmitted from person to person by means of direct contact with the mouth, throat or mucus with an infected person. It can occur to anyone by it highly common in children.

Causes of Tonsillitis

The most common cause of tonsil infections is caused by bacterial and viral infections. These include:

• Bacteria
  • Streptococcus bacteria
• Viruses
  • Influenza virus
  • Adenoviruses
  • Parainfluenza viruses
  • Enteroviruses
  • Epstein-Barr virus
  • Herpes simplex virus

Symptoms of Tonsillitis

Signs and symptoms of tonsillitis are commonly easy to diagnose. Apart from swollen tonsils, the following are the main symptoms that are used to diagnose tonsillitis.

• Red and enlarged tonsils with yellow or white coating or patches
• Painful blisters on the throat
• Throat pain or tenderness
  • Lasts for more than two days
  • May be severe
• Hoarse or voice loss
• • Difficulty swallowing or breathing through the mouth
  • Fever and chills
  • Bad breath
  • Ear pain
  • Headache
  • Stiff neck
  • Nausea and vomiting
  • Abdominal pain
  • Loss of appetite
  • Increased irritability
  • Drooling

First Aid for Tonsillitis

As is with many cases of bacterial and viral infections, treatment will depend on the cause. A doctor will perform a throat swab culture or strep test to diagnose the cause of tonsillitis. The main purpose of applying first aid after initial signs of tonsillitis is to avoid exacerbating the symptoms and to promote recovery of a child. To relieve of symptoms:

• If caused by a bacteria
  • Antibiotics, which can be taken just once or for 10 days
• If caused by a virus
  • Antibiotics will have no effect thus this should not be taken
  • Take plenty of rest.
  • To relieve from throat pain, drink warm or very cold fluids. Gargle with warm salt water.
  • Eat smooth foods to avoid aggravating throat pain.
  • Lozenges containing benzocaine or other anesthetics may be taken.
  • Over-the-counter pain relievers such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen may be taken as well.

Disclaimer: The information given should not be substituted for medical advice or first aid training. To learn more about tonsillitis and other bacterial and viral infections of the body, register to join in Standard Childcare First Aid Courses.

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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a disease state characterized by airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The most recent definition of COPD provided by the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD), is a broad description that better explains this disease condition and its signs and symptoms defined by a persistent defined poor gas exchange and airflow as a result of a degeneration and breakdown of lung tissue as well as dysfunction of the small airways which typically worsens over time.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseasesmay include diseases that cause airflow obstruction (emphysema and chronic bronchitis) or any combination of these disorders. Other diseases such as cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis and asthma were previously classified as types of chronic pulmonary disorders. However, asthma is now considered as a separate disorder and is further classified as an abnormal airway condition characterized primarily by reversible inflammation. Moreover, COPD can coexist with asthma since both of the diseases have the same major symptoms.

Pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, the airflow limitation is both progressive and associated with an abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to noxious particles or gases. The inflammatory response occurs throughout the airways, lung parenchyma and pulmonary vasculature. Since all inflammation response activate the body’s immune system response in an attempt to repair the injury and maintain homeostasis, over time, this injury-and-repair process causes scar tissue formation and narrowing of the airway lumen of the underlying lung tissue.

Early in the course of COPD, the inflammatory response causes pulmonary vasculature changes that are characterized by thickening of the vessel wall. These changes may result from; exposure to cigarette smoke, use of tobacco products and the release of inflammatory mediators necessary for the activation of the immune response.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Chronic Bronchitis

Chronic Bronchitis is a disease of the airways which is defined as the presence of cough and sputum production for at least three months in each of two consecutive years. In many cases, smoke or other environmental pollutants irritate the airways, resulting in hyper secretion of mucus and inflammation. This constant irritation causes the mucus-secreting glands and goblet cells to increase in number. Ciliary function is also significantly reduced and more mucus is produced. The bronchial walls become thickened, the bronchial lumen narrows and mucus eventually plugs the airways. Alveoli adjacent to the bronchioles may become damaged and fibrosed, resulting in altered function of the alveolar macrophages. A wide range of viral and bacterial infections can produce acute episodes of bronchitis. Exacerbations of chronic bronchitis are most likely to occur during cold seasons.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Emphysema

In emphysema, impaired gas exchange and carbon dioxide exchange results

from destruction of the walls of over distended alveoli. Emphysema is a pathologic term that describes an abnormal distention of the air spaces beyond the terminal bronchioles with the destruction of the walls of the alveoli. Emphysema is generally the end process of the permanent damage that has progressed slowly for many years. As the walls of the alveoli are destroyed, the alveolar surface area in direct contact of the pulmonary capillaries continually decreases causing an increase in dead space (lung area where no gas exchange can occur). This type of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is irreversible which often leads to hypoxemia and eventually cardiac failure.

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different set of instructions may be advised to ensure proper splinting.

It is particularly more difficult to make a splint for the hand as compared to the limbs and other parts of the body. Thus, there is a slightly different set of instructions that are advised to ensure proper splinting of the hand. A fracture in the hand, similar to any kind of fracture, can be very painful, consequently even slight movements can worsen in the pain. Placing temporary hand splints should be done immediately after the injury.

Before making a splint for the hand, it is necessary to treat any wounds in the hand. If there is any bleeding, ensure that the bleeding has stopped. Give care to all wounds before applying the splint. After creating a splint for the hand, ensure that there is normal circulation in the hands. If there are signs of poor circulation, loosen the splint or remove.

How to Make a Splint for the Hand: Materials Needed

Temporary hand splints can be made from everyday materials available in the house or in the house. The following materials are needed to make a splint for the hand

• Washcloth, ball of socks, or tennis ball
• Cotton balls or gauze
• Newspapers, rolled up cloth
• Belt, ties or clean cloth
• Plaster of Paris
• Warm water
• Ice pack

How to Make a Splint for the Hand: Makeshift Hand Splint

Once all materials are prepared to create a makeshift hand splint, prepare the hand for splinting.

• The person’s finger should be closed around the ball of socks or tennis ball.
• Place small pieces of cotton or gauze between each finger. This will help absorb sweat.
• Find a splint that is hard, straight and at least as long as the distance from the middle of the forearm to the tips of the fingers. It is generally ideal to use an object that follows the shape of the arm, wrist and hand.
• Use gauze, a clean cloth or belt to wrap the fractured area. Wind it securely around the splint and wrist area for the splint to remain in place. Do not place wraps directly above the injured hand to further injuries.
• Place ice on the top of the hand. Do not apply ice directly to the hand, instead wrap it with a towel or cloth. to avoid further injuries.

How to Make a Splint for the Hand: Cast Splint

Another option is to create a cast splint for the hand, although this may require more materials that are not readily available at home. The following is the procedure to make a cast splint.

• Place a splint under the injured hand. Ensure that the injured hand is straight with fingers slightly bent around the end of the splint.
• Using four layers of cotton gauze or padding, wrap the splint starting around the hand, making its way to the arm to at least half-way through the elbow.
• Place cotton pieces of gauze in between each fingers.
• Dip the plaster of Paris strips in warm water and wrap them around the cotton gauze or padding. Do this until the padded area is completely covered. Do not use hot, scalding water to avoid further injuries.

Disclaimer: This article does not provide medical advice and should

not be substituted for formal training. Seek medical attention when necessary. To learn how to properly make a splint for the hand, enrol in First Aid Courses and CPR Courses with St Mark James Training.

Online Sources:

http://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-make-a-splint?toptoctest=expand

http://www.wikihow.com/Splint-a-Fractured-Hand

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